Table of Contents:

Things to do Before Writing Your Paper		Stylistic Conventions
Writing Your Paper		Before You Hand in Your Paper
General Pointers		Length Considerations

THINGS TO DO BEFORE WRITING YOUR PAPER

Issues of Conceptual Organization

• Develop your topic area thoughtfully by doing a preliminary review of the literature. Then check with your advisor to see if the topic is OK, and that your scope is not too broad or too narrow. If it is too narrow, there may not be enough available information to write a good paper; if it is too broad, it may need to be more tightly focused to create an insightful paper.
  
• As you read, summarize each article, chapter etc. to help you remember what you have read.
  
• Do appropriate literature searches of books, chapters, and articles to ensure that you include up-to-date information.
  
• Learn to use >search= utilities to find resources on your topic, such as Ingenta, PubMed and Research Port.
  
• Do not rely on a small number of sources.
  
• Do not rely on summary articles as your main source because these are considered "secondary" sources; you need to read the information in the original study or book. Similarly, AVOID citing material you have not personally read, such as:
  • AJones reports that SLI children have difficulty with quick word mapping (Jones, in Smith, 1997).
    
• Use reputable sources - articles in refereed journals, texts, etc...
  
• Do not use the Internet without double checking all the facts you find there in another primary source.
  
• Organize your concepts.
  
• Use an outline and focus on major concepts within your topic area. The entries in your outline can serve as headings and sub-headings for your paper.
  
• Have your reader/advisor approve your outline and references

One possible outline for a term paper/candidacy paper consists of:

• Introduction
  • Introduce the area of study you will be discussing
  • Identify major issues within this area of study
  • Identify the specific purpose of your paper
    
• Critical review of the pertinent literature
  • Divide your discussion into relevant sub-topics
  • Succinctly summarize, synthesize and critique
    relevant findings under appropriate headings
  • Present your "thesis"
    
• Discussion
  • Summarize your findings
  • Discuss implications for further study or practical application
  • Identify areas for future research
    
• References
  • Include all sources cited in the body of your document

Another possible outline, often used for candidacy papers is:

• Introduction
• Literature review
• Proposal for study
• References

• Introduction
  • Introduce the problem
  • Provide background discussion (a review of the pertinent literature)
  • State the purpose and rationale for your paper/study/ experiment (include research questions and hypotheses)
• Method
  • Participants
  • Stimuli/materials
  • Procedure (instructions given to participants/ how data were collected and recorded)
  • Reliability (if applicable)
• Results
  • Data presentation (tables, charts, if appropriate)
  • Statistical analysis
  • Text describing the information in tables and charts
• Discussion
  • Evaluation of findings
• References

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WRITING YOUR PAPER

1. Title Page
2. Abstract
3. Introduction & Review of Literature
4. Results
5. Discussion
6. References
7. Appendix

Title Page

Helpful Pointers:

A. Title (pp. 10-12, 296-298)

1. Summarize main idea of paper

B. Form

1. 10-12 words is the recommended length
2. center title on page and type in uppercase and lowercase letters
3. if two or more lines, double-space between lines

C. Author and Affiliation (pp.11-12)

1. every manuscript has a byline consisting of two parts: the name of the author and the institution where the investigation was conducted (without the words "by" or "from the")
2. the preferred form of an author's name is first name, middle initial, and last name
3. the affiliation identifies the location where the author or authors conducted the investigation, which is usually an institution
4. include a dual affiliation only if two institutions contributed substantial financial support to the study

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Abstract (Empirical Studies) (pp. 12-15)

Helpful Pointers:

A. Form

1. type the label "Abstract" in upper and lowercase letters, centered, at top of page
2. type abstract as a single paragraph in block format (no indent)
3. type numbers as digits unless they start a sentence
4. 100-120 words

B. Content

1. any information in the abstract should be in the paper
2. begin with most important information and include at least one sentence about:
   • problem under investigation, in one sentence, if possible
   • subjects--characteristics such as number, type, age, or sex
   • experimental method, including apparatus, data-gathering procedures, complete test names
   • findings, including statistical significance levels
   • conclusions and implications or applications
3. use the present tense to describe results
4. use the past tense to describe specific variables manipulated or tests applied

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Introduction & Review of the Literature

• Under Introduction, present the specific problem investigated and describe the research strategy (critical review of the literature for a candidacy paper or empirical study) that will be used.
  
• Under Review of the Literature describe, evaluate and synthesize previous work on the topic. In organizing this section, remember that you are giving reasons for why your study is worth doing. At the end of this section, the purpose and rationale of the study is usually stated; this will follow very nicely if you have organized your introduction to lead to the need for conducting your study.

Helpful Pointers:

• Synthesize information, don't just summarize:
• Don't simply list a bunch of studies; integrate their findings.
• Critique information, don't merely report findings (this applies to all papers, especially candidacy papers).
• A continuous parade of cited materials, even when cited properly, does not and should not replace your own discussion of the topic. Your term paper grade is based on your contributions, not those of your sources. Use direct quotations sparingly, and avoid any direct repetition of your source materials without clear attribution. PLAGIARISM is a serious breech of academic integrity. All cases of plagiarism will be referred to the Student Honor Council on Academic Dishonesty for action.

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Helpful Pointers:

1. Tables (pp. 147-175; checklist on p. 175 is especially helpful); use Table 4 on page 152 as an example for the following guidelines:
   1. entire table, including title, headings and notes should be double-spaced
   2. tables should be numbered (Arabic numerals B Table 1, 2, 3 etc...) according to the order they appear in the text
   3. title should be brief but explanatory
   4. every column should have a column heading (refer to Table 4)
   5. all abbreviations and special symbols should be explained (refer to Table 4)
   6. if table includes statistical findings, probability level values should be correctly identified (see Table 6, page 154)
   7. use checklist, pp 175-176 as final review
      
2. Figures (pp. 176-201; checklist on p. 201 is helpful)
   1. can use graphs (pp. 177-9), charts (p. 179), dot maps (pp.179), line drawings (pp.179) or photographs (p.179)
   2. figure should be simple and free of extraneous detail
   3. the grid scale should be correctly proportioned (e.g., if data range from 80-90 you don't need a scale from 0-100)
   4. figures should be numbered consecutively with arabic numerals, and all figures should be mentioned in the text
   5. use checklist, pp201 as a final review
3. Statistical Expression (pp. 21-25, 136-145)
   1. can use text, tables, or figures to report the results of statistical analyses
   2. give references for less common statistical analyses (e.g., no reference needed for ANOVA because it is a well known)
   3. all Tables and Figures in the document must be explained in words; it is not enough to simply refer to Tables and Figures by their number
   4. descriptive statistics (e.g., means or median)
      1. with means, always include the standard deviation
      2. descriptive stats should always be reported before inferential statistics
   5. when reporting inferential stats (e.g., t-tests, F tests, and chi-square), include information about:
      1. obtained magnitude or value of the test (e.g., F = (3, 27) = 28.72, p<.0001)
      2. degrees of freedom (e.g., F = (3, 27) = 28.72, p<.0001)
      3. probability level (e.g., F = (3, 27) = 28.72, p<.0001). Probability level is the probability of making a Type I error, also known as the alpha level
      4. computer printouts sometimes list p values as .0000; in these instances you should write p< .0001 because there is no zero probability of error
      5. direction of the effect: It is not enough to write that group A and B are significantly different from each other; you need to write which group is larger (smaller) or higher( lower) etc... than the other
      6. specific guidelines for different inferential stats are on p. 22
   6. Statistical symbols
      1. in narrative, use the term, not the symbol (e.g., means, not Ms)
      2. most sample stats are expressed by italicized letters (e.g., SD)
      3. number of subjects--N = number of members in total sample, n = number of members in a sub-group of the larger sample
      4. Common abbreviations are on pp. 141-144

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Helpful Pointers:

• Summarize your findings and state whether your hypothesis or position is supported
• Similarities and differences between your results and the work of others should be the basis of your conclusions
• Suggest ways to settle apparent contradictory findings
• Present your position regarding the major issue studied in your paper

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References (pp. 215-281)

All citations in the manuscript must appear in the reference list, and all references must be cited in the text.

Helpful Pointers:

1. Reference Lists should contain only sources that have been cited in text; be sure that all citations mentioned in the text are listed in reference list
2. single-spaced, hanging indents within each reference; double space between references (example below):
3. Smith, J. (1997).The development of logical thinking. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum and Wasserman Associates.
   
   White, F.S. (1991). Cognitive development in young children. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Order of references in the list (p.219)

1. alphabetize by surname of first author (e.g., Brown, J. R. precedes Browning, A. R.)
2. for several references with the same author:

   1. one author entries precede multiple author entries (e.g., Kaufman, J. R.(1991). precedes Kaufman, J. R. & Corcoran, F.S. (1987).)
   2. arrange by year, earliest first (e.g., Kim, L. S. (1991). precedes Kim, L. S. (1994).)
   3. if other authors are different, alphabetize by second author (e.g., Kaufman, J. R., Jones, K. & Corcoran, D. F. (1992). precedes Kaufman, J. R. & Wong, D. F. (1989).)
   4. if all the same authors are in the same order, order by year of publication (e.g., Kaufman, J. R. & Jones, L. (1987). precedes Kaufman, J. R. & Jones, L. (1989).)
   5. if you have all the same authors and the same date, alphabetize by title following date--use lowercase letters after the year (e.g., Kaufman, J. R. (1990a). Control of... precedes Kaufman, J. R. (1990b). Roles of ...)
   6. different authors, same surname--alphabetize by initials (e.g., Kaufman J. R. (1990). precedes Kaufman X. Y. (1990).)

Examples of different types of references (pp. 223, 240-260)

1. books: Smith, J. (1997). The development of logical thinking. Hillsdale, NJ; Erlbaum and Wasserman Associates.
2. edited book: Smith, J., & Jones, F. (Eds.). (1997). The development of logical thinking. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum and Wasserman Associates.
3. chapter in book: Kaufman, J.R. (1990). The pleasures of writing technical reports. In J.Smith & F. Jones (Eds.), The development of logical thinking (pp. 45-93). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum and Wasserman Associates.
4. journal article: Kaufman. J.R. (1997). The effect of drugs of word pronunciation. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 40, 22-51.
5. Eric document: Kaufman, J.R. (1990). The acquisition of cued speech by children from Roumania. Rockville, MD: Cued Speech Foundation. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 346 082).

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Appendix (pp. 205-207)

Helpful Pointers:

1. all appendices must be referred to in text. Use letter name (e.g., Appendix A).
2. if the Appendix requires headings and or sub-headings, follow the guidelines described under the section Headings

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GENERAL POINTERS

The pointers listed in this section apply to all manuscripts and to various sections of your document.

Helpful Pointers:

1. Margins and Spacing
2. Headings and Subheadings
3. Citations Within the Text
4. Capitalization
5. Numbers
6. Italics
7. Abbreviations Relevant to HESP

Margins and Spacing (pp. 286-287, 290-291)

A. Margins

1. at least one inch margins at top, bottom, right and left
2. don't right-justify lines--use flush-left style, with right margin left ragged
3. don't hyphenate words at the ends of lines

B. Spacing

1. double-space between all lines
2. double-space after every line in the title, headings, footnotes, quotations, references, figure captions and all parts of tables
3. there should be only one space after all types of punctuation, including:
   a. commas, colons, and semicolons
   b. the ends of sentences
   c. after periods of initials in personal names
4. to distinguish between hyphen, dash, minus, or negative value--p. 291
5. quotations are always double-spaced
   a. fewer than 40 words, incorporate in text, enclose by double quotation marks
   b. longer than 40 words, indent 5-7 spaces from left margin without usual paragraph indent, but still double-spaced
   c. must cite the exact page of source within the paragraph
   d. always give page numbers for quotations, and use abbreviations for page (p.) and chapter (chap.) (p. 213)

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Headings and Subheadings (pp.95-96, 111-112, 289-290)

1. All topics of equal importance have the same level of heading throughout the manuscript
2. need at least 2 subsection headings within any given section, or use none
3. all subheadings should follow a top-down progression, starting with Level 1, except for a five-level paper (levels are shown in pp. 112-113)
4. we encourage you to use no more than a three-level heading
5. There is no heading that says "Introduction"
6. If the introduction section includes headings, begin with a level two heading
7. Don't label headings with numbers or letters

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Citations Within the Text (pp. 207-214)

A. One work by one author

1. cite surname and year (e.g., Rogers (1994) compared reaction times...or In a recent study of reaction times (Rogers, 1994)...)
2. within the same paragraph, don't need to cite year in subsequent references as long as it can't be confused with other studies. Need to re-cite year in subsequent paragraphs

B. One work, multiple authors

1. for 2 authors, always cite both names every time (e.g., Rogers & Smith, 1994)
2. for 3, 4 or 5 authors, cite all names the first time, then only the surname of the first author followed by "et al." (e.g.,Wasserstein, Zappulla, Rosen, Gerstman, and Rock (1994) --first time; Wasserstein et al. (1994)--thereafter)
3. Six or more authors: cite only the first author and "et al." for the first and subsequent citations (e.g., Kosslyn, Koenig, Barrett, Cave, Tang, and Gabrieli (1992) shortens to Kosslyn, et al. (1992) )
4. in text, join names in a multiple author citation by "and" (e.g., Recently Nightlinger and Littlewood (1993) demonstrated... )
5. in parentheses, use the ampersand (&) (e.g., It has been shown (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1989)...)
6. authors with the same surname: include the authors' initials in all text citations, even if the date differs (e.g., P. D. Luce (1959) and P. A. Luce (1986) also found...)
7. when citing two or more works within the same parentheses:
   a. two or more works by the same author published in different years should be cited by year of publication; give the surname only once, then the dates for subsequent works--dates are separated by commas (e.g., Past research (Edeline & Weinberger, 1991, 1993, in press)
   b. for two or more works by the same author in the same year, assign lower case letters after the year (e.g., Several studies (Johnson, 1991a, 1991b, 1991c)
   c. different authors in parentheses should be in alphabetical order, separated by semicolons (e.g., Several studies (Balda, 1980; Kamil, 1988; Pepperburg & Funk, 1990)

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Capitalization (pp. 95-99)

A. Words Beginning a Sentence

1. capitalize the first word in a complete sentence
2. capitalize the first word after a colon that begins a complete sentence (e.g., The authors made one point: No explanations that have been reported so far have answered the questions of learning disabilities.)

B. Major Words in Titles and Headings.

1. capitalize content words in: titles of books and articles, article headings and subheadings, and figure legend
2. capitalize all words of four letters or more
3. when a capitalized word is a hyphenated compound, capitalize both words (e.g., Hearing-Impaired, Speech-Language). Do not use slash marks (/)
4. capitalize the first word after a colon or dash in the title (e.g., Language development: Birth through adolescence)

C. Proper Names and Trade Names (pp 96-97)

1. capitalize proper nouns and adjectives that use proper nouns, (e.g., Freudian slip); but do not capitalize adjectives that have acquired a common meaning (e.g., eustachian tube)
2. capitalize names of university departments if they refer to specific departments within a specific university
3. don't capitalize the names of laws, theories or hypotheses unless they include a proper name, (e.g., strong cognition hypothesis)

D. Nouns Followed by Numerals or Letters (pp.97-98)

1. capitalize nouns followed by numerals or letters that denote a specific place in a numbered series (e.g., Experiment 2); but do not capitalize nouns that denote common parts of books or table (e.g., chapter 1)

E. Titles of Tests (pp. 98-99)

1. capitalize exact, complete titles of published and unpublished tests
2. Do not capitalize words such as "test" or "scale" if they refer to subscales of tests (e.g., Weschsler Performance scale)

F. Names of Factors, Variables and Effects (p.99)

1. capitalize names of derived factors within a factor analysis (e.g., Factor 1)
2. do not capitalize effects of variables unless they appear with multiplication signs (e.g., The effect of age was not significant, but Age x Gender interaction was...)

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Numbers (pp. 122-130)

A. General Rule

1. use figures to express numbers 10 and above and words to express numbers below 10 (e.g., There were 21 children in three groups...)

B. Numbers Expressed in Figures

1. use figures to express all numbers below 10 that are grouped for comparison with numbers 10 and above (e.g., 3 of 21 analyses)
2. use figures for numbers that immediately precede a unit of measurement (e.g.,10.54 cm of...)
3. use figures for numbers that represent statistical or mathematical functions, fractional or decimal quantities, percentages, ratios and percentiles and quartiles (e.g., 22 times as many; 2^nd quartile)
4. use figures for numbers that represent time, dates, ages, sample, subsample or population size; specific numbers of participants in an experiment, scores and points on a scale, and exact sums of money, (e.g., 2-year-olds)
5. use figures for numbers that denote a specific place in a numbered series, parts of books and tables, and each number in a list of four or more numbers, (e.g., grade 8, trial 3, row 5; 1, 3, 4, and 7 words)
6. all numbers in the abstract of a paper should be in numerals

C. Numbers Expressed in Words (pp. 125-127)

1. use words to express numbers below zero through nine, except for numbers for measurements (e.g., 9 msec)
2. use words for any number that begins a sentence, title or heading
3. use words for common fractions (e.g., one fifth of the class...)

D. Combining Figures and Words to Express Numbers (p.127)

1. use a combination of figures and words to express rounded large numbers (e.g., almost 3 million people; a budget of $2.5 billion)
2. use a combination of figures and words to express back-to-back modifiers (e.g., the analysis revealed 2 two-way interactions, twenty 6-year-olds)

E. Decimal Fractions (p.128)

1. use a zero before the decimal point when numbers are less than 1 (e.g., 0.23 SD)
2. do not use a zero before a decimal fraction when the number cannot be greater than 1 (e.g., correlations r = .72; levels of statistical significance, p<.001)

F. Commas in Numbers (p.129)

1. use commas between groups of three digits in most figures of 1,000 or more (e.g., 1,000,000,000.00)
2. Exceptions:
   • page numbers page 1029
   • serial numbers 290466950
   • degrees of temperature 3071' F
   • acoustic frequencies 2000 Hz
   • degrees of freedom F(24, 1000)

G. Plurals of Numbers (p.130)

• to form the plurals of numbers, whether expressed as figures or as words, add s or es alone, without an apostrophe (e.g., fours and sixes; 10s and 20s)

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Italics (pp. 100-102)

A. General Rules

1. use italics infrequently
2. words underlined in a manuscript appear in italics when typeset

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Abbreviations Relevant to HESP (pp. 103-111)

A. Explanation of Abbreviations (pp. 104-105)

1. a term to be abbreviated must, on its first appearance, be written out completely and followed immediately by its abbreviation in parentheses; thereafter, the abbreviation is used in text without further explanation (e.g., the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test - III ( PPVT - III) ...The results of the PPVT - III...

B. Abbreviations Accepted as Words (p. 105)

1. APA style permits the use of abbreviations that appear as word entries in Webster's Collegiate. Such abbreviations do not need explanation in text (e.g., IQ, ESP, AIDS, SES)

C. Latin Abbreviations (p. 106)

1. The Latin abbreviation et al., (and others) is used in all cases.
2. use the following standard Latin abbreviations only in parenthetical material; in non-parenthetical material, use English translation of the Latin terms

 

Parenthetical	Non-parenthetical
cf.	compare
e.g.,	for example
etc.	and so forth
i.e.,	that is
viz.,	namely
vs.	versus, against

D. Units of Measurement (pp. 106-108)

1. use abbreviations for units of measurement that are accompanied by numeric values (e.g., 4 cm, 12 min)
2. to prevent misreading, do not abbreviate the following units of time, even when they are accompanied by numeric values: day, week, month, year
3. a list of common scientific abbreviations is on pages 106-108

E. Plurals of Abbreviations (pp.110-111)

1. to form the plural of most abbreviations and statistical symbols, add "s" alone, without an apostrophe (e.g., IQs, Eds., vols.)
2. do not add an "s" to units of measurement (e.g., 12 sec.)
3. In the References section, form the plural of the abbreviation p. (page) with pp.

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STYLISTIC CONVENTIONS (pp. 40-61, 70-76)

• Consult The Elements Of Style by Strunk and White

A. Reducing Bias in Writing (pp. 61-76)

1. constructions that might imply bias against persons on the basis of gender, sexual orientation, racial or ethnic group, disability, or age should be avoided
2. scientific writing should be free of implied or irrelevant evaluation of the group or groups being studied
3. Table 1 provides a summary of appropriate language, along with examples

Inappropriate	Appropriate version
subject	participant, individuals, children, adults, respondents
learning disabled children	children with learning disability
disabled subjects	participants with a disability
crippled participants	participants with a motor disability
stroke victims	individuals who have had a stroke
300 Orientals	300 Asian participants (or name of country)
chairman	chair, chairperson
Black, non-white	African Americans
Spanish, Latino	Hispanic
The client's behavior was typically female	The client's behavior was (specify exactly)
senile participants	participants with dementia

 

B. Grammatical problem areas

1. whenever possible, write in the active voice, avoid passive voice constructions
2. use formal writing style rather than spoken conversational style (e.g., should have (not should've), they examined or studied the problem (instead of they looked at the problem), report (not write up), the results they obtained (not the results they got), orient (not orientate, which is not a word in English)
3. check for tense agreement within a sentence. Keep to one tense in a paragraph
4. check for subject-verb agreement
5. do not use redundant phrases. You can eliminate the bracketed redundant word in the following examples: The reason is (because)..., summarize (briefly), (completely) unanimous
6. do not split infinitives, (e.g., to analyze statistically, not to statistically analyze)

C. Problem words

1. Plurals of Latin source words (e.g., data is plural, datum is singular; phenomena is plural, phenomenon is singular; criteria is plural, criterion is singular)
2. there vs. their (e.g., there are many readers vs. their home belongs to them)
3. use the pronoun who to make reference to humans, and that for non-humans and inanimate objects (e.g., those children who were tested (not that))
4. use the word correlate ONLY to refer to a statistical finding
5. principal vs. principle. ( principal = first in rank and importance principle = a rule and adherence to such a rule)
6. effect vs. affect. Effect: as a noun means "result"; as a verb it means "to bring about," to "accomplish." (e.g., the effect of nutritional deprivation was...). Affect: as a verb means to "influence" )

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BEFORE YOU HAND IN YOUR PAPER

• PROOFREAD for spelling and grammar!!!! - Use your spell checker and re-read!! Your readers will differ in the extent to which they will lower grades if an otherwise well-conceptualized paper contains numerous spelling errors, typos, and grammatical flaws. Don't risk it.
  
• Write clearly and concisely: ask someone unfamiliar with the topic to read the paper to see if it makes sense.
  
• AVOID PLAGIARISM, whether intentional or inadvertent. Plagiarism is defined as "intentionally or knowingly representing the words or ideas of another as one's own in any academic exercise" (University of Maryland, College Park Code of Academic Integrity). You MUST restate information in YOUR OWN WORDS.
  
• Quoting a limited amount of information from your primary sources is permissible, but must be clearly identified, as in the following examples:
• The discovery was heralded as a "landmark moment for science" (Watkins, 1993).
• Bloodstein noted the following observation: "It is difficult to read certain case reports of children who began to stutter after a shift in handedness....without being impressed by the possibility that laterality is a factor in some cases." (Bloodstein, 1959, p. 35)

• A recommended page limit for term papers/candidacy papers is 30 pages + references. A suggested distribution for the pages is:
• Introduction (3-5 pages)
• Review of the literature (20 pages)
• Discussion and research proposal (5-6 pages)
• Summary and conclusion (2-4 pages)

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